A closely related and intricately intertwined dimension of time is rhythm. Rhythm as a dimension focuses more on how time is dynamized at different speeds, for example, how societal changes alter who holds “temporal power” (Durkheim, 1950). Rosa (2013) and Wajcman (2015) have examined the phenomenon of social acceleration and its potential effects. Rhythm and speed, as well as changes in them, are closely linked to the social forces that shape our existence. Time as a social construct has been studied by Elias (1993), while Thompson (1967) has analyzed the transformation of the perception of time in industrial society. Georg Simmel (1971) highlights the pace of the city and its effects on the individual psyche, while Lefebvre (2004) develops rhythm analysis as a way to understand social and physical rhythms
Slow speediness/eurythmy: the tempo and rhythm of life are vitalizing and suited to heroic citizenship. Slow speed is a balance in which, to use a Latin proverb, one hurries slowly. Slow speed is a balance and flexibility that a temporal subject and temporal citizen can utilize, employing techniques of deceleration and acceleration, to create an optimal rhythm and pace that can be used for ethical purposes and also shared with others. Slow speed is drawn from readings on social acceleration (Rosa, 2013, 2019; Wajcman, 2015; Newport, 2017). At its highest level of balance, “slow speed” possesses the capacity to engage with and solve complex problems that change form over time. If one is too slow, complex problems have time to alter their nature, and the slow subject can never catch up.
Lefebvre defines eurhythmics as the state in which different rhythms are in harmony and support one another, thereby creating balance (Lefebvre, 2004). These different rhythms can be physical, social, at the individual level, within a social configuration, or at the macro level. Rhythm among people is part of the good life, for example, by being able to share a rhythm with one’s family, such as having time off together. However, eurythmy in itself need not be a delicate balancing act between slowness and speed if it is confined solely to the private sphere; rather, it involves combining multiple rhythms, even in the struggle for civil rights. For at the same time, it may, for example, be necessary to try to break free from the rhythm imposed by a certain social configuration, such as finding different ways to slow down the pace that is generally encouraged in an accelerating society. Conversely, certain things may proceed too slowly, such as important societal changes, where striking a delicate balance requires active participation in efforts to resolve that societal problem more quickly as part of the civic struggle.
In the context of a widespread shortage of “time energy,” temporal citizenship involves finding strategies and practices to increase one’s time energy and create moments of recovery (Berglund 2026). Today’s accelerating society demands that we be fast in certain aspects, slow down in others, and create moments of recovery. One challenge for the temporal subject is managing polyrhythms (Lefebvre, 2004), that is, multiple parallel rhythms that place high demands on us. Which rhythms to engage with, which to try to shut out, which can be combined, and which can be used as a counterforce against other rhythms, and so on, are questions the temporal citizen must address. We need to make use of the pockets of time we have (leisure, statutory limits on work) but also fight for more pockets of time as a political project. Rosa sees time as strongly linked to our ability to be in the world; alienation is a consequence of not having time to create resonant experiences with others. If we do not have time to participate in social communities, culture, reading, or nature, it becomes difficult to have resonant experiences. One aspect of alienation in the factory is being alienated from the temporal power to exercise one’s own agency, and instead being controlled by machine time and serving as an “appendage to the machine” (Marx).
A sense of stress can stem from deficiencies in other dimensions. For example, a lack of competence and skills (Sennett, 2013), which may manifest as poor reading skills and an inability to complete projects. The stress that many students experience in Swedish schools is linked precisely to low levels of knowledge and weak abilities, such as reading proficiency. Slow and inefficient learning is one of the most central factors contributing to a sense of slowness, as one’s own pace creates a perception of acceleration. Achieving balance therefore requires examining what influences one’s experience of time and rhythm. Improving one’s ability to communicate through text and think more quickly can be considered an acceleration technique. Another acceleration technique is to practice being deeply focused on what you are doing, rather than multitasking, which fragments your reflexivity and slows down your thought process (Collins, 2004, 2000; Newport, 2016). However, deep focus can feel slow when compared to being connected to a constant stream of many different stimuli, such as on social media, which can also be perceived as “boring” (Fisher, 2011). When focused, one is often still, slowed down, and focused on a single thing; yet at the same time, it is the fastest thing one can do, because with the highest level of focus, one is at one’s most creative, best at producing and learning things, compared to, for example, multitasking. The multitasking individual is slow but perceives the activity as fast, a habit that Nietzsche cultivated, is to be so focused that one enters a state of frenzy, as he described it, which he alternated with long hikes in the Alps.
"Slow speediness" is also linked to reflexive action, where a quick, thinking person can shorten the time between thought and action, whereas many people learn things without applying them. They know how to form a new habit or how to solve a problem, but wait too long to act. As a result, they fail to gain momentum; they barely get started, or they think they can sharpen the axe, but they just keep sharpening the axe without ever starting to chop down the tree. Building momentum and vitality means becoming a faster subject; making room for rest and staying in rhythm are part of being a fast subject. At the same time, part of “slow speed” is also having the patience for things that take longer. Patience is a virtue that the fable of the hare and the tortoise is about, where small steps build up cumulatively. Discourses and ideas about succeeding quickly create resistance to having patience. A lack of socialization and knowledge also means that one’s thought processes aren’t strong enough to support patience. Patience can be misdirected; putting up with subordination is the wrong kind of patience. It is patience in focused action that is central. Excessive and misdirected patience can thus cause us to become stagnant.
Imbalances
Below are various imbalances in this dimension.
Over-haste
Lack of time. The stress of a job that forces one into overproduction. The overly hasty subject suffers from a lack of time, but this stems from a busyness resulting from a long chain of pseudo, actions (Adorno, 1991). The overhurried subject is always on the go, which leads them to engage in “pre, procrastination”, where no time is “wasted”, leaving no time to think about what is actually the best course of action. In this way, overhurriedness is linked to an imbalance in reflexive action; there is no time for reflection. Busyness can also be more self, imposed, which reduces its burden, in that one intensifies one’s free time by filling it with more activities, making it feel more stressful (Wajcman, 2015). Stress can also stem from “shadow work” (Illich, 1981), which has increased in scope as leisure time is filled with various tasks that must be done, for example, a long commute from work, or exercising to stay healthy in order to cope with the effects of a sedentary job. Stress can also be caused by a withdrawal from social interaction, leaving one alone to handle various tasks. For example, there is the double burden of work resulting from individualized living arrangements, such as caring for children, cooking, and so on. This double burden could be reduced by promoting a variety of adapted, more collective forms of housing. However, collective living remains outside the realm of mainstream political discussions.
Fatigue syndrome is a concept highlighted by Han (2015) as a reaction to an excess of positivity and a focus on capability, overcommunication, and a society that moves too quickly, where people “self, exploit” themselves. McKerracher argues, however, that exhaustion stems more from the fact that discipline and control remain dominant social forces, particularly in the workplace (2023).
Time-energy shortage (timenergy lack). A time, energy shortage is a lack of both time and energy. Some people may have plenty of time but little energy due to a low sense of social belonging and pride (for example, being unemployed), while others have plenty of energy but little time left over outside the workplace (McKerracher, 2023). Part of the time, energy shortage is that one then lacks regular time that can be used to delve into what is happening in the world, develop skills, and generally engage in activities that are part of the pursuit of the good life beyond work of various kinds (McKerracher, 2023).
Time theft and time exploitation are part of enforced temporal subordination, which in turn often leads to a negative impact on one’s energy, since the social process of having time stolen often involves practices such as following orders and obedience that deplete people’s emotional energy (Collins, 2004).
Arrhythmia, being out of rhythm. Lefebvre argues that arrhythmia is largely created because modernity brings with it mechanical and linear rhythms that disrupt more natural cyclical rhythms. A concrete example is the human need for sleep, which is cyclical; if this need is not taken into account, for instance, because one works too long, one ends up in arrhythmia (Lefebvre, 2004).
Low EE and out of rhythm: here we find a blasé attitude, depression, low self, esteem/pride, in other words, shame (Strandell, 2017; Scheff, 2008). High EE and out of rhythm: here, the individual is frenetic, yet despite great determination, they fail and are unable to achieve successful social interactions (Collins, 2004).
The habitus gap (Bourdieu, Friedman, 2016) describes a conflict that arises when an individual’s internalized habits and dispositions (habitus), shaped by a particular social environment, no longer fit the new context, which can lead to feelings of insecurity or alienation. The change that has occurred externally is not in sync or in rhythm with what is internal. This can happen during a class transition (Friedman, 2016), but also during societal changes or lifestyle changes (such as moving out of one’s parents’ home or starting college, for example).
Temporal followership is an imbalance in which one is not an active participant in the temporal landscape (timescapes), resulting in a constant need to relate to the time and rhythm of others, such as temporal entrepreneurs, managers, etc. One consequence of this temporal followership in today’s modernity is that one becomes stagnant, immobilized (Rosa, 2019).
Immobilization, an imbalance linked to movement, action, community, and citizenship. Temporal followership of tech companies, the entertainment industry, and other businesses, for example, makes it difficult for people to establish a collective tempo capable of influencing the temporality and rhythm of society.
Zombification. Ryan (2012) uses the zombie as a metaphor to describe academics, administrators, and students who have lost their awareness, self, reflection, and critical thinking skills in the wake of neoliberal reforms and governance models in higher education. Here, I extend the metaphor to be more general. The focus here is more on slowness in both action and thought. Collins argues that social factors influence the speed of internal conversations (Collins, 2004). A defining feature of “zombification” is that the speed of thought is slower, often due to a normalized reluctance to be in school and a habit of being half, focused, which prevents one from taking full advantage of the brain’s capacity, which is possible only when fully focused on a task. The “slow subject” engages in procrastination, performs tasks with half, concentration, and multitasks. This half, focus causes the “slow subject” to simultaneously experience their existence as stressful, as the rest of the world moves so quickly and is filled with demands. Zombification is a form of the “slow subject.” Zombification can also be seen as a reflection of an overly routine, driven and boring life. Barbalet argues that boredom is an emotional experience of meaninglessness (Barbalet, 1999). Zombification can also be seen as a reaction to an accelerating society, which requires growth and acceleration to maintain the status quo, so, called “dynamic stabilization” (Rosa, 2013). For school students, zombification also becomes a reaction to living under the “tyranny of perfection”, to be “just the right amount of perfect” in various domains, and not to stand out too much, while at the same time excelling in areas such as appearance, academic performance, friends, an interesting personality, and status symbols like designer clothing (Hiltunen, 2017). “Zombification” is a way to slow down time at certain moments in order to rest a little.