Play as a dimension has been studied by researchers from various perspectives: as a technology for engagement (Davies 2017), as a foundation of human culture and humanity (Huzinga, 1938), its effects on society (Deterding, 2014), its positive aspects (McGonigal, 2011), play as the carnivalesque element in celebrations (Goffman, 2019), and as a central part of the good life (Nussbaum, 2003; Schiller, Illich, 1973). Deterding (2014, 326) distinguishes between eudaimonic and hedonistic gamification and playification. The hedonistic approach is solely for pleasure, whereas the eudaimonic approach is part of seeking and living a good ethical life.
Gameful Playfullnes: where play and games are used in the pursuit of the good life. Gameful Playfullness is when play and games are used in a way that motivates action, primarily toward heroic citizenship. An example of eudaimonic gamification is psychologist Jane McGonigal, who argues that one can gamify one’s life by having an epic goal, an avatar, enemies, allies, missions, upgrades, tools, and power, ups (McGonigal, 2012). Playfulness and a sense of play are different cognitive and emotional states characterized by an appreciation for challenges; this is central to many games, precisely something that is challenging (McGonigal, 2012). Challenges, when embraced and transformed into a positive experience, are not strictly necessary for a good life, but they can support one.
Another aspect of play is the carnivalesque, coming together in celebration and losing oneself in rhythm, dance, and play. The carnivalesque is needed as a counterbalance to more structured forms. The carnivalesque, in the form of parties, consists of spaces that can be part of a search for a good life, because parties are places where one can test boundaries and connect with new people (Goffman, 2019). Parties play a significant role in people’s lives, both in finding a partner and in changes to the trajectory of a life project (Goffman, 2019). The carnivalesque and playful are also present in Ivan Illich’s concept of conviviality (Illich, 1973). This conviviality is a playful (eutropilia) (Illich, 1973), creative community that stands in contrast to industrial productivity.
Competition is inherent in play. Etymologically, competition implies discovering things together. Competition that spurs one another on can be a central element in improving an organization. The struggle for mutual recognition drives improvement. This can, for example, lead to creative destruction/innovation (Schumpeter, 1942).
Part of gameful playfullness is humor, which Aristotle regarded as one of the 12 virtues. Laughter and play are closely related. Exactly what humor is remains a subject of debate, with various theories about what makes us laugh. Different elements of humor, such as irony and satire, are ways to spark discussion and new ideas. Nietzsche speaks of a “golden laugh,” in which laughter was part of an attitude toward the world and oneself. For Nietzsche, laughter and humor have the potential to “laugh at oneself” in order to become humble, take on heavier burdens, and seek new values; it is the person who can laugh at all the tragedies in the world (Nietzsche, 2006). It is not laughter born of malice or cynicism, but rather laughter and playfulness while simultaneously taking on the heaviest burdens and living the most dangerous life, smiling in the face of death.
“Gamified playfulness” or “eudaimonic gamification” refers to the idea that play serves a purpose by motivating and contributing to the creation of a good life. “Playful seriousness” occurs when play focuses on tackling difficult challenges, challenges one enjoys taking on because one is in a “playful state” (McGonigal, 2012), where the challenge is part of the game. Play can be done alone, but its strength lies in being part of creative and convivial communities (Illich, 1973)
Imbalances
Below are various imbalances in this dimension.
Hedonistic gamification and playification occur when pleasure is an end in itself, which can turn play into a form of escapism. Examples of this include computer games and video games (Bailes, 2019) or festivals where the enjoyment of play is the primary goal; the effects this has on the creation of the good life are of lesser importance and may even be negative.
Anti-play: “Dumserious” refers to an inability to approach tasks with humor as part of an over, routinization. It is a superstitious belief that one can exist in the real world and the world of facts without fiction and enchantment finding their way in. “Dumserious” people are those who approach challenges far too seriously. This stems from a fear of making mistakes, a belief that being very serious is the best way to get things done. There is also a misconception that one can exist in the real world and the world of facts without fiction and enchantment finding their way in. Everything must be in order, and there is no room for humor, as expressed, for example, through a rigid professionalism (Merrifield, 2017).
Closely related to anti, play is pseudo-play, that which pretends to be playful but, beneath the surface, conceals an indifference toward play. Blase playfulness is when that blase attitude, which is about being “cool”, a modern phenomenon of being able to relax and playfully navigate various social situations with ease. This is a form of playfulness that is actually a kind of cynicism, choosing not to engage fully in life, but rather to remain an observer.
Incorporated play: Play as work is the state in which play provides an opportunity for others to extract value, for example, free gaming apps that allow tech companies to collect information about you as a user, which can then be sold. Gamification can also take a very subtle form, such as incorporating elements from games, like rankings and points, which serve more as a form of quantification than true gamification. Quantifying life can be positive, but it can also become part of something obsessive, such as the desire to gain more followers and likes, and to participate in the game of going viral. This influence is enormous because this subtle gamification forms the basis for how algorithms are designed to increase user engagement. This form of gamification is also passivizing, as it creates a small number of winners who generate content because they receive sufficient engagement on their posts, while the others become spectators.
Excessive Gaming: Depressive competition syndrome (Davies, 2015) occurs when rivalry and competition are taken too far. Competition is a form of play, but one that can take over one’s life. Competition in a market, driven society has increased vulnerability to competition. Competition as a social practice becomes too dominant. This can be exacerbated in organizations where there are insufficient safety nets and a culture that encourages rivalry and competition. Competition is central to society because we have both social competition over status, which is likely inevitable for humans, and institutionalized competition in the form of the market. This can be exacerbated in organizations where there are insufficient safety nets and a culture that encourages rivalry and competition. Rivalry also exists among politicians who focus on winning elections rather than on governing. This is a result of a competitive democracy in which too much emphasis is placed on this form of democratic expression rather than on deliberation. Around political parties, there is a culture of hooliganism where the focus is on ensuring one’s own party wins, driven by politically motivated thinking.